Shrapnel on the Altar

Four men carry a symbolic coffin, led by a group of deacons dressed in golden vestments, with one at the front carrying a cross. Behind the coffin, a group of women chant, “In the end, O Lord, have mercy on us,” as the sound of a tolling bell fills the air. The scene was captured on a video documenting the Good Friday procession held by the parish of Our Lady of the Annunciation of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church in the Sudanese capital, Khartoum, on April 15, 2022, about a year before war broke out in the country.

For over two years—since the war began in Khartoum—the church has remained empty, its congregation, descendants of Syrian migrants, forced to stay away.An investigation indicates that the church was likely occupied by individuals linked to the Rapid Support Forces (RSF). This conclusion is based on a chronological and geographical analysis of the frontline, corroborated by satellite imagery and a video filmed after the Sudanese army retook the Republican Palace and its surrounding area in northern Khartoum, just 750 meters from the church.

Along the northern façade of the church complex wall facing Parliament Street, we observed a security checkpoint. On the southern side, along Republic Street, we documented another checkpoint located about 25 meters away. Both were installed during the period of the Rapid Support Forces’ control over the area. In the church courtyard, we identified several beds and indications that the space had been used to accommodate personnel. Inside the main hall of the church, we found a box. After examining several pieces of collected evidence, a specialist in explosive engineering and ordnance analysis, concluded that the box was likely intended for military use.

The church occupies a strategic location between the Republican Palace and the army’s General Command, which was under siege by the Rapid Support Forces for much of the war. This led some individuals affiliated with the Rapid Support Forces to take over the church as their base.

We sent a selection of evidence collected from 16 churches, including photographs, video footage, and the temporal and geographical context of each case, to the Human Rights Lab (HRL) at the Yale School of Public Health (YSPH). The lab’s team reviewed the submitted materials, gathered and analyzed multiple satellite images from Maxar Technologies for each church, and provided us with a detailed case-by-case analysis. It is worth noting that the lab closely monitors the humanitarian crisis in Sudan and recently published an alert highlighting the worsening humanitarian situation in El-Fasher, northern Sudan.

The investigation recorded damage to 23 churches and one monastery, representing most major Christian denominations. These incidents occurred from the outbreak of war on April 15, 2023, until the Sudanese army regained control of Khartoum.The investigation identified several patterns of damage, including break-ins and vandalism, explosive remnants, misuse of facilities, fires, armed clashes within church grounds, and the desecration of attached cemeteries.

Analysis of debris from two projectiles, along with multiple images of shelling damage gathered from 12 churches and one monastery, was conducted with the assistance of an explosive engineering and ordnance analysis expert who requested anonymity. The findings confirmed that eight churches were hit by air-to-surface missiles, some of which were launched from drones.Other churches sustained damage from projectiles whose exact type could not be determined.

Based on the temporal and geographical analysis of the clashes, it is highly likely that the army was responsible for the shelling of the Monastery of Anba Antonius and Anba Musa Al-Aswad in Al-Haj Yousif, East Nile locality. The Rapid Support Forces are also likely responsible for at least one instance of shelling of the Association and Church of the Italian Catholic Salesian Sisters in southern Khartoum.

The Rapid Support Forces are responsible for the exploitation and break-ins of 13 churches, including their facilities and gardens. These incidents took place while the forces controlled the areas where these churches are located. Evidence indicates that soldiers or affiliates of the Rapid Support Forces were stationed within the courtyards of at least seven churches.

Fighting occurred between the Rapid Support Forces and the army within the grounds of at least two churches in Old Omdurman: the Church of the Great Martyr Mar Mina in Al-Mazahir neighborhood, and the Church of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary.

Marko Milanović, Professor of Public International Law at the University of Reading School of Law and Director of the Global Law at Reading (GLAR) research group, provided insight into the legal responsibilities of the parties to the conflict under relevant international law. After reviewing selected examples of the documented attacks, including video footage and photographs, he confirmed that they amount to war crimes.

He states: “Deliberate attacks on buildings dedicated to religious purposes, provided they are not classified as military objectives, constitute a war crime under Article 8(2)(e)(iv) of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. One such case was successfully prosecuted in relation to the situation in Mali.”

In a landmark case, the International Criminal Court convicted Ahmad al-Faqi al-Mahdi in 2016, for the destruction of religious and historical sites in Timbuktu, Mali, sentencing him to nine years in prison, later reduced to seven years.

Although the context differs from the war in Sudan, the point of comparison between the two cases lies in the exploitation of churches and the damage inflicted upon them such as the desecration and destruction of religious elements, which mirrors the acts for which Al-Mahdi was convicted. However, the motives behind the violations committed against churches in Sudan remain less clear than in al-Mahdi’s case, which was linked to groups affiliated with al-Qaeda. The nature of the targeted buildings in the two countries also differs.

Milanović adds that international humanitarian law protects places of worship just like all other civilian objects, meaning they must remain off-limits to attack. He notes, however, that this protection can be lost particularly if such sites are used by enemy forces and thus become legitimate military targets. Nevertheless, he emphasizes that places of worship are generally considered cultural property and, as such, are entitled to heightened protection. This calls for particular caution and diligence during military operations, even if the enemy makes use of these sites.

He explains that this protection does not apply to all church buildings or annexes by default, but only to “those of exceptional importance that, in essence, constitute part of the cultural heritage of all peoples.” Still, he emphasizes that “these structures remain civilian objects and are protected as such.”

The attack by an armed group on the headquarters of the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Omdurman (The Cathedral of Our Lady Mary and the Church of the Great Martyr St. George) on the evening of May 13, 2023, was among the most severe assaults inflicted on churches.

In our interview, Father Arsanios Abu Saif, the priest at the diocese who was shot in the leg during the attackers’ assault, accused the Rapid Support Forces of damaging the church.

This account aligns with statements from two other witnesses to the attack. Saifin Naji, a teacher and cantor at St. George’s Church, told the media he was shot in the leg, while Nabil Ishaya, a sacristan at Abanoub Al-Thawra Church, also confirmed the incident.

During this attack, we documented extensive vandalism of the church offices, the desecration of a statue of Christ, and a cross discarded on the ground. The assault occurred in the first month of the war, at a time when the Rapid Support Forces claimed to control 90 percent of the capital’s three cities, including Omdurman, where the diocese is located.

The church and the diocesan headquarters were attacked again for looting on May 23, 2023, according to testimonies documented in a report by Amnesty International. The clergy had already evacuated the premises following the initial attack, and most Coptic residents had left the Al-Musalamah neighborhood, according to Father Arsanios.

After the army regained control of the neighborhood, we documented extensive damage to the church caused by clashes that took place roughly between August 2023, and January 2024. This included a strike on the church’s bell tower by a surface-to-ground missile, according to expert analysis. We also recorded dozens of bullet impacts on the walls of both the diocese and the church.

To the northwest, approximately 930 meters from the Church of the Immaculate Conception, stands the Church of the Great Martyr Mar Mina, affiliated with the Coptic Orthodox Diocese of Omdurman, located in the Al-Mazahir neighborhood. An Amnesty International report quoted a clergyman saying that the Rapid Support Forces stormed the church on May 22, 2023.

Our analysis of visual materials collected after the army regained control of the area shows that clashes took place between the army and the Rapid Support Forces both inside the church and in its surrounding area.Additionally, the service building suffered extensive fire damage, and bullet impacts caused significant harm to the church’s façade, the service building, its walls, and the surrounding fence.

Inside the church courtyard, we observed remnants of a projectile that an expert identified as parts of an air-to-ground missile, likely launched from a drone. The interior of the church sustained significant damage, including hits to its bell tower by approximately three projectiles. Directly in front of the church, along its private road, we documented a destroyed vehicle suspected to have been used for military purposes.

The church’s location proved unfortunate—it sat on the frontline where the Rapid Support Forces were positioned in the Al-Omda and Al-Musalama neighborhoods, just 350 meters from army-controlled zones starting at the Central Reserve Camp (Abu Tira), which endured repeated RSF attacks. Satellite imagery taken between October 12 and 19, 2023, and analyzed by Yale University’s laboratory, confirmed damage to one of the church’s annex buildings.

A comparison of satellite images from October 19, 2023, with others dated February 16, 2024, clearly reveals the aftermath of clashes—including a burnt-out vehicle in front of the church and damage to the fence and gates—indicating that the fighting occurred between these dates, during the army’s advance to retake Old Omdurman from the Rapid Support Forces.

In addition to the damage, evidence we documented indicates that individuals affiliated with the Rapid Support Forces likely used the church as a base for extended periods. Other reported violations included the desecration of a cross inside the church, as well as several nearby graves. Father Arsanios believes the tombs were disturbed in search of gold, as Rapid Support soldiers reportedly hold the belief that Copts—due to their Egyptian origins—are “Pharaohs” who bury gold with their dead.

Aren’t there any young women here? It’s just a bunch of old ladies

East of Omdurman, and within Khartoum—one of the three cities forming the capital—we documented damage to 11 churches to varying degrees. Approximately 981 meters west of the Republican Palace lies the Cathedral of the Virgin Mary, the seat of the Diocese of Khartoum and South Sudan of the Coptic Orthodox Church. The complex includes a convent for nuns, service buildings, and an affiliated school, the Coptic College.

Based on the testimony of Father Joseph John from the diocese, along with an audio recording we found online of a member of the cathedral staff, the Rapid Support Forces entered the cathedral on May 7, 2023, and made them keep the doors open so they could use the complex’s facilities, such as bathrooms and electricity. They also asked Bishop Elia, head of the diocese, about the presence of girls, according to the testimony and the recording.

After the army recaptured the Republican Palace on March 21, 2025, we reviewed videos taken by soldiers showing the cathedral premises. Analysis of the footage documented the extraction and burning of electrical cables to recover metals. Inside the cathedral, we recorded desecration of the altar and extensive damage to several parts of the building. Additionally, the Rapid Support Forces’ emblem was seen handwritten on the wall of one of the annexed buildings.

In eight churches across Khartoum and Bahri where the Rapid Support Forces maintained control for periods ranging between 18 and 22 months, we documented the extraction and burning of electrical cables to obtain copper, which was later sold for profit. We observed evidence of cable melting inside and near several churches that were affected by fire damage, including the Evangelical Church in Khartoum, which was repurposed as a site for collecting and melting cables, and the Church of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Mediatrix of All Graces, in Bahri.

The evidence we gathered suggests that seven churches in Khartoum, located in areas under the control of the Rapid Support Forces for periods ranging from 18 to 22 months, were exploited for varying durations, at a minimum for extracting metals from electrical cables, and in some cases, for use as living quarters.

The Evangelical Church is located approximately 285 meters south of the cathedral, on Al-Jumhuriya Street next to Al-Salam Bank, and about 1,100 meters from the Republican Palace. After the army regained control of the street, soldiers, including a Christian soldier from the church’s congregation named Raphael, filmed three videos. Analysis of the footage documented the presence of numerous beds, clothing items, and cooking utensils in the church courtyard, along with extensive evidence of burned electrical cables. The resulting fires caused by cable burning and possibly cooking destroyed much of the church’s interior.

The roof of a structure within the church courtyard was also damaged by explosive ordnance between December 2 and 6, 2024, according to an analysis conducted by Yale University’s laboratory.

To the northeast, the Mac Nimir Bridge links Khartoum to Bahri, a site that saw some of the war’s key phases. The army’s advance across this bridge from Bahri marked a decisive turning point in the battle for the capital.. Just east of the bridge, less than 400 meters from the Republican Palace, stands the Catholic Cathedral of St. Matthew. Adjacent to it is the Kuwait Building, where soldiers from the Rapid Support Forces were observed in November 2023, before it was recaptured by the army on March 20, 2025.

A Catholic clergyman in Khartoum, who requested to remain anonymous, confirmed in his testimony that the Rapid Support Forces used the cathedral as a base for a certain period during the war. Based on videos we collected of the cathedral and its compound, it is likely that individuals affiliated with the Rapid Support Forces stayed there for some time, as evidence of their presence was observed inside the cathedral building.

We documented extensive damage to the cathedral building, including the desecration of a statue of Christ, the destruction of two altars, and damage to the roof. Significant damage was also recorded in adjacent buildings, such as the priests’ residence and the library, caused by falling military ordnance. The damage from these projectiles occurred in two distinct periods: the first from the outbreak of the war until the end of November 2024, and the second between December 1, 2024, and February 16, 2025, including strikes that hit the cathedral’s roof.

The second period coincided with the army’s advance south of Bahri city toward the northern entrance of the Mac Nimir Bridge over the Blue Nile, while the cathedral stands at the southern entrance of the bridge.

The analysis conducted by Yale University’s laboratory confirmed these observations after examining some imagery taken in February 2024 and others between February 11 and 13, 2025. The analysis documented at least four new impacts: two struck a covered meeting hall, while the other two hit the roof of the cathedral itself.

On January 29, 2025, a unit from the Bara ibn Malik Battalion—an allied force supporting the army—advanced toward the Diar Al-Qatariya Towers in southern Bahri, about 666 meters northwest of the cathedral. At the same time, army troops were pushing north from southern Khartoum toward the Republican Palace. We documented the cathedral in a video dated February 15, 2025, filmed by a soldier from the rooftop of a building he claimed was located in the Souq Al-Arabi area in central Khartoum.

"We were forced out at gunpoint"

Near Khartoum Airport stands the Armenian Apostolic Orthodox Church, which we documented as having sustained significant damage. Analysis suggests that the Rapid Support Forces used the adjoining garden as a base for personnel to stay and store vehicles. In his testimony, Garair Bozjian, Secretary-General of the Armenian community in Sudan, said that on May 10, 2023, the Rapid Support Forces stormed his home, which shares a wall with the church. They looted his property at gunpoint, forcing him and his family to flee Khartoum. He added, “They told us, ‘We control this area.’”

Bozjian accused members of the Rapid Support Forces of stealing several possessions and belongings, including a silver cross brought from Jerusalem and gifted to the church at its inauguration in 1958, according to his testimony.

He also accused the Rapid Support Forces of converting the garden adjoining the church into a base for storing their vehicles and cutting down trees in the church courtyard. Satellite images confirmed the storage of vehicles and the tree cutting. Evidence gathered from inside the church and the adjoining garden indicates that individuals affiliated with the Rapid Support Forces used the site as a base.

“Through analysis of numerous videos of the church, both inside and outside, after the army retook the area, we documented extensive damage caused by a hit from a military projectile. An expert’s analysis suggested that it was an ‘air-to-ground’ missile launched from a drone.”

Approximately 580 meters to the south lies the All Saints Cathedral, situated within the compound and headquarters of the Evangelical Episcopal Church, located west of Khartoum Airport in the Al-Amarat neighborhood, on First Street.

On May 16 Archbishop Ezekiel Kondo accused the Rapid Support Forces of storming and occupying the church compound, using it as a base, stealing a vehicle, and vandalizing property. According to an interview with Kondo and statements by the Bishop of Leeds, Reverend Nick Baines, armed men attacked the compound during the first three days of the war, detaining Kondo and several others for three days. He accused members of the Rapid Support Forces of being behind the attack and of interrogating them at gunpoint before eventually releasing them.

After the army regained control of the area, cathedral officials captured several videos and photographs of the complex. Upon examination with an expert, it was determined that a wall in the cathedral sustained damage from a direct hit by an air-to-ground missile fired from a drone. The investigation indicates that the complex was likely used as a temporary residence by individuals affiliated with the Rapid Support Forces. Additionally, a bag found inside the complex was assessed by an expert as likely containing an optical targeting tool for a weapon. Moreover, we documented instances of grave desecration within the compound.

In the final days of the Rapid Support Forces’ control over the area surrounding the cathedral complex, an analysis by Yale University’s laboratory of satellite images taken between March 2 and 9, 2025, revealed the construction of a new defensive position outside the complex. This finding further supports the investigation’s conclusion that the Rapid Support Forces were using the complex.

Destruction of a monastery church and its facilities

On the eastern outskirts of Khartoum, about 1.7 kilometers west of the Ad Babiker power station, in the Al-Naseem neighborhood of Al-Haj Yousif, part of the East Nile locality, lies the Monastery of Anba Antonius and Anba Musa Al-Aswad, covering an area of 276,000 square meters.

We tracked reports circulated on Telegram channels supportive of the army, claiming that the army shelled the monastery on September 3, 2023, after receiving information about Rapid Support Forces being stationed inside. However, satellite images from the same month that we analyzed showed the monastery’s facilities in good condition.

In satellite images from August 2023, we observed what appear to be two checkpoints, likely established by the Rapid Support Forces, positioned on either side of the monastery along the road running to its north. These checkpoints were also visible on multiple occasions, with the most recent sighting on February 16, 2025.

By analyzing several other satellite images, we observed significant destruction to a church and other facilities within the monastery ground on December 3, 2024. It was the earliest date on which we detected visible damage and was at a time when the Rapid Support Forces were still in control of the locality. Separately, Yale University’s laboratory analyzed earlier satellite images, taken between September 9 and October 24, 2024, and documented damage to multiple buildings within the monastery.

Meanwhile, we documented the army’s advance toward the Ad Babiker power station on February 15, 2025, and observed army soldiers near the monastery wall on February 20..

After sharing images of the destruction to the monastery’s buildings with an expert in explosive engineering and munitions—who requested anonymity—we concluded that the damage was caused by a strike from an air-to-ground missile, most likely launched from a drone. A temporal and geographical analysis of the fighting strongly suggests that the army was responsible for the shelling, as the locality was fully under Rapid Support Forces control at the time and had been repeatedly targeted by army attacks.

In neighboring Khartoum Bahri, specifically in the Al-Ezba area, buildings adjacent to the River of Life Baptist Church were damaged during an airstrike that destroyed several nearby structures on December 19 or 20, 2024. Yale University’s laboratory analyzed satellite images taken between December 18 and 23, of the same year and concluded that multiple instances of damage around the church were likely caused by the airstrike.

This aligns with two statements we obtained: one from an eyewitness in the area and another from a clergyman at the church, both of whom requested anonymity. The witnesses—along with members of the congregation who documented the damage in a video we received—stated that the airstrike caused civilian deaths, including children, and accused the army of responsibility for the attack, according to their statements. However, independent verification of the casualties from independent sources was not possible.

The investigation suggests that the army is responsible for shelling the area around the church, as Al-Ezba experienced a heavy presence of Rapid Support Forces until their withdrawal in February 2025.

Moving to the city of El Obeid, the capital of the state of North Kordofan, the investigation suggests that the Rapid Support Forces are responsible for firing two projectiles that landed in the complex of the Cathedral of St. Mary, Queen of Africa, the seat of the El Obeid Diocese, which is part of the Sudanese and South Sudanese Catholic Bishops’ Conference (SSSCBC).

Since the outbreak of the war, the Rapid Support Forces have sought to seize control of the city, advancing from the western and southwestern directions. However, they were unable to reach the city center, where the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Division (also known as Hajjana) of the Sudanese Armed Forces is located, due to fierce resistance from both the division and popular forces. Consequently, the fighting remained confined to the western and southwestern outskirts of the city.

Five days after the outbreak of the war, two projectiles struck the cathedral gate and the priests’ residence. An analysis of the battle’s geography suggests that the projectiles were likely fired from areas controlled by the Rapid Support Forces during an attack on the headquarters of the 5th Infantry Division (Hajjana), located less than 500 meters southeast of the cathedral. However, both projectiles landed within the cathedral complex.

Marko Milanović, Professor of Public International Law at the University of Reading Law School, emphasizes the responsibility of the Sudanese Armed Forces and the Rapid Support Forces to respect international humanitarian law and to ensure compliance by all their personnel. He adds that commanders could be held accountable under the principle of command responsibility if they fail to prevent those under their command from committing war crimes or fail to punish them.

Girgis Mounir, a Sudanese Christian who remained in Khartoum for most of the war and visited many of its damaged churches after the withdrawal of the Rapid Support Forces, told us that he witnessed extensive destruction, including damage to buildings, theft of icons, electrical cables being stolen, and fires breaking out in some of the churches.

Armed with hope, Jrayer Bozjian, Secretary-General of the Armenian community in Sudan, intends to return to Khartoum after being forced to leave because of the war. He says that, with the blessing of the Armenian Church Metropolitan in Cairo and donations from Armenian communities around the world, the damaged parts of both the church and his home will be rebuilt.

This investigation was carried out in partnership between ARIJ and Muwatin